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Figure from:Fluvial Landscapes of the Harappan Civilization

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Sample locations within each section are shown in Fig. $4. *Calendar ages are relative to year 2010. ‘Ages on mollusk fragments; probably reworked; not used in age models *Number refers to lithostratigraphic log for sample in Fig. $4. Table $3. Results of AMS '*C dating of organic materials recovered from locations shown in Figs. $1-S3

Table 3 Sample locations within each section are shown in Fig. $4. *Calendar ages are relative to year 2010. ‘Ages on mollusk fragments; probably reworked; not used in age models *Number refers to lithostratigraphic log for sample in Fig. $4. Table $3. Results of AMS '*C dating of organic materials recovered from locations shown in Figs. $1-S3

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Fig. 1. Large-scale morphology of the Indo-Gangetic Plain (for altitudes, pattern of colors repeats every 10 m to 300 m in height; higher landscape in gray Convex downslope, aggradational landscapes (e.g., Tista = t; Kosi = k; Gandak = g) have a lighter mask, whereas incisional landscapes have a red mas (B) Along-channel longitudinal profiles for the Indus and its Punjab tributaries. (C) Hydrographs for the Indus and confluent Punjab tributaries (Panjnad River (D) Profiles across the extended Indus plain (in meters above sea level). River channel locations are identified on the profiles, as are locations and ages of studie fluvial sedimentary deposits in Sindh and Punjab (ages in thousands of years).
Fig. 1. Large-scale morphology of the Indo-Gangetic Plain (for altitudes, pattern of colors repeats every 10 m to 300 m in height; higher landscape in gray Convex downslope, aggradational landscapes (e.g., Tista = t; Kosi = k; Gandak = g) have a lighter mask, whereas incisional landscapes have a red mas (B) Along-channel longitudinal profiles for the Indus and its Punjab tributaries. (C) Hydrographs for the Indus and confluent Punjab tributaries (Panjnad River (D) Profiles across the extended Indus plain (in meters above sea level). River channel locations are identified on the profiles, as are locations and ages of studie fluvial sedimentary deposits in Sindh and Punjab (ages in thousands of years).
during the last glacial period, but switched to the Ganges basin before Harappan times.
during the last glacial period, but switched to the Ganges basin before Harappan times.
Fig. 4. Palaeo-hydroclimate reconstructions and sedimentary activity chron- ology for the Harappan domain. (A) Indian monsoon precipitation recon- struction (35). (B) Synthetic reconstructions for the Indian monsoon domain (black) and westerly precipitation (37) (gray). (C) Sedimentation ages for fluvial forms in: Sindh (i.e., Indus fluvial mega-ridge); Nara Valley; Indus- Panjnad-Ghaggar-Hakra confluence; Punjab incised valleys; Punjab inter- fluves (doabs); and the lower and upper Ghaggar-Hakra (G-H) system regions, respectively. OSL dates are represented by triangles and calibrated AMS radiocarbon dates by circles; error bars are shown if larger than the symbol size. Fluvial deposits are shown in black- and white-filled symbols (for high vs. low sedimentation rate deposits, respectively), whereas dunes are repre- sented by gray-filled symbols. Ages for the upper Ghaggar-Hakra system are from Saini et al. (33). The temporal extent of each Harappan phase is indicated by vertical dashed lines (E = early; M = mature; L = late). For the arid Indus region, river floods have always been far more important and reliable for agriculture than rainfall. As during the Harappan era (7, 10, 20), inundation agriculture during the Rabi season (winter crops) was dominant along the Indus and its tributaries (10, 38, SI Text) prior to the development of the largest irrigation system in the world in 20th century Pakistan. Hydrocli- mate reconstructions for South and Central Asia (39-41) show that precipitation from both monsoon and westerly sources that feed rivers of the western Indo-Gangetic Plain (20) decreased since approximately 5,000 y ago, and was at its lowest after approxi- mately 4,000 y BP (Fig. 4). This drying of the Indus region sup- ports the hypothesis that adaptation to aridity contributed to social complexity and urbanization (1, 52). An intense drought period around 4,200 y ago, linked to major disruptions in Egypt and Mesopotamia (53-56), coincides instead with the flourishing of Harappan urbanism within the limits of available chronology. This event, recorded at the start of the aridification process in
Fig. 4. Palaeo-hydroclimate reconstructions and sedimentary activity chron- ology for the Harappan domain. (A) Indian monsoon precipitation recon- struction (35). (B) Synthetic reconstructions for the Indian monsoon domain (black) and westerly precipitation (37) (gray). (C) Sedimentation ages for fluvial forms in: Sindh (i.e., Indus fluvial mega-ridge); Nara Valley; Indus- Panjnad-Ghaggar-Hakra confluence; Punjab incised valleys; Punjab inter- fluves (doabs); and the lower and upper Ghaggar-Hakra (G-H) system regions, respectively. OSL dates are represented by triangles and calibrated AMS radiocarbon dates by circles; error bars are shown if larger than the symbol size. Fluvial deposits are shown in black- and white-filled symbols (for high vs. low sedimentation rate deposits, respectively), whereas dunes are repre- sented by gray-filled symbols. Ages for the upper Ghaggar-Hakra system are from Saini et al. (33). The temporal extent of each Harappan phase is indicated by vertical dashed lines (E = early; M = mature; L = late). For the arid Indus region, river floods have always been far more important and reliable for agriculture than rainfall. As during the Harappan era (7, 10, 20), inundation agriculture during the Rabi season (winter crops) was dominant along the Indus and its tributaries (10, 38, SI Text) prior to the development of the largest irrigation system in the world in 20th century Pakistan. Hydrocli- mate reconstructions for South and Central Asia (39-41) show that precipitation from both monsoon and westerly sources that feed rivers of the western Indo-Gangetic Plain (20) decreased since approximately 5,000 y ago, and was at its lowest after approxi- mately 4,000 y BP (Fig. 4). This drying of the Indus region sup- ports the hypothesis that adaptation to aridity contributed to social complexity and urbanization (1, 52). An intense drought period around 4,200 y ago, linked to major disruptions in Egypt and Mesopotamia (53-56), coincides instead with the flourishing of Harappan urbanism within the limits of available chronology. This event, recorded at the start of the aridification process in
Fig. $1. Upper: Location of sampling sites in lower Sindh on a Google Earth image of the Indus alluvial plain and delta: 1 = Matli; 2 = Mirwah, 3 = Shah Dipalli; 4 = Merkan); the modern city of Hyderabad and towns of Thatta and Umarkot are also identified. The white box shows the extent of the region shown in lower box. Lower: SRTM-derived DEM with interpreted distributary channel courses, locations of sampling sites, and localities identifiec in upper box. Drill sites are represented by white circles, and shallow sampling sites are depicted by black circles. For altitudes, pattern of colors repeats every 10 m. Nonalluvial or desert regions are covered by a transparent brown mask.
Fig. $1. Upper: Location of sampling sites in lower Sindh on a Google Earth image of the Indus alluvial plain and delta: 1 = Matli; 2 = Mirwah, 3 = Shah Dipalli; 4 = Merkan); the modern city of Hyderabad and towns of Thatta and Umarkot are also identified. The white box shows the extent of the region shown in lower box. Lower: SRTM-derived DEM with interpreted distributary channel courses, locations of sampling sites, and localities identifiec in upper box. Drill sites are represented by white circles, and shallow sampling sites are depicted by black circles. For altitudes, pattern of colors repeats every 10 m. Nonalluvial or desert regions are covered by a transparent brown mask.
Fig. $2. Upper: Location of sampling sites in Pat region and Cholistan (Bahawalpur region) on a Google Earth image of the Indus and Nara-Ghaggar-Hak alluvial plains: 1 = Fakirabad; 2 = Nara Kenab; 3 = Nara; 4 = Ft.Derawar; 5 = Basti; 6 = Tilwalla; 7 = Yazman; 8 = Alkasur Cotton Jinner; 8 = MGJ-3; 9 = SUT- 10 = MGJ-5; 11 = Marot; 12 = Marot (1); 13 = Ft.Abbas (3); 14 = Ft.Abbas (MGJ-2); and 15 = Ft.Abbas (MGJ-1); the modern city of Sukkur is also identified. Tk white box shows the extent of the region shown in lower box. Lower: SRTM-derived DEM with interpreted distributary channel courses, locations of samplir sites, and localities identified in upper box. Black dotted lines show terrace edges. Drill sites are represented by white circles, and shallow sampling sites ai depicted by black circles. For altitudes, pattern of colors repeats every 10 m. Nonalluvial or desert regions are covered by a transparent brown mask.
Fig. $2. Upper: Location of sampling sites in Pat region and Cholistan (Bahawalpur region) on a Google Earth image of the Indus and Nara-Ghaggar-Hak alluvial plains: 1 = Fakirabad; 2 = Nara Kenab; 3 = Nara; 4 = Ft.Derawar; 5 = Basti; 6 = Tilwalla; 7 = Yazman; 8 = Alkasur Cotton Jinner; 8 = MGJ-3; 9 = SUT- 10 = MGJ-5; 11 = Marot; 12 = Marot (1); 13 = Ft.Abbas (3); 14 = Ft.Abbas (MGJ-2); and 15 = Ft.Abbas (MGJ-1); the modern city of Sukkur is also identified. Tk white box shows the extent of the region shown in lower box. Lower: SRTM-derived DEM with interpreted distributary channel courses, locations of samplir sites, and localities identified in upper box. Black dotted lines show terrace edges. Drill sites are represented by white circles, and shallow sampling sites ai depicted by black circles. For altitudes, pattern of colors repeats every 10 m. Nonalluvial or desert regions are covered by a transparent brown mask.
Fig. $3. Upper: Location of sampling sites in Punjab, Pakistan on a Google Earth image of the combined alluvial plain of the Indus and Punjab rivers: 1 = Dipalpur; 2 = Okara; 3 = Karan Shah; 4 = Kalokay; 5 = Doda; 6 = Jahanabad; the modern city of Lahore is also identified. The white box shows the extent of the region shown in lower box. Lower: SRTM-derived DEM with interpreted distributary channel courses, locations of sampling sites (black circles), and localities identified in upper box. For altitudes, pattern of colors repeats every 10 m. A gray mask identifies interfluves. Nonalluvial or desert regions are covered by a transparent brown mask.
Fig. $3. Upper: Location of sampling sites in Punjab, Pakistan on a Google Earth image of the combined alluvial plain of the Indus and Punjab rivers: 1 = Dipalpur; 2 = Okara; 3 = Karan Shah; 4 = Kalokay; 5 = Doda; 6 = Jahanabad; the modern city of Lahore is also identified. The white box shows the extent of the region shown in lower box. Lower: SRTM-derived DEM with interpreted distributary channel courses, locations of sampling sites (black circles), and localities identified in upper box. For altitudes, pattern of colors repeats every 10 m. A gray mask identifies interfluves. Nonalluvial or desert regions are covered by a transparent brown mask.
Fig. S4. Core logs and their OSL and radiocarbon chronology for sites examined in the Indo-Gangetic Plain along three transects in Pakistan. Geographical location of numbered sites on each transect are identified visually in Figs. $1-S3 and numerically in Tables $1-S3.
Fig. S4. Core logs and their OSL and radiocarbon chronology for sites examined in the Indo-Gangetic Plain along three transects in Pakistan. Geographical location of numbered sites on each transect are identified visually in Figs. $1-S3 and numerically in Tables $1-S3.
Fig.S5. Distribution of archaeological sites in the Indus domain approximately 4, 500, 3,900, 3,500, and 3,000 y ago (updated with data from ref. 31, 26-29, 32).
Fig.S5. Distribution of archaeological sites in the Indus domain approximately 4, 500, 3,900, 3,500, and 3,000 y ago (updated with data from ref. 31, 26-29, 32).
The geographical location of dated sites is shown in Fig. S2 and dated sample locations within each section are shown in Fig. $4. *The number of aliquots measured is shown, with the number of aliquots passing all rejection criteria (and used in age calculation) shown ‘og refers to the overdispersion parameter of Galbraith, et al. (1) used to assess the dose distribution. ‘Galbraith RM, Green PF (1990) Estimating the component ages in a finite mixture. Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurements 17:197-206. *CAM refers to the central age model, and FMM to the finite mixture model [Galbraith, et al. (1)]. ‘Galbraith RM, Green PF (1990) Estimating the component ages in a finite mixture. Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurements 17:197-206. 5The equivalent doses, dose rates, and ages are shown to three significant figures. All calculations were made prior to rounding. "The luminescence signal of sample at the base of Marot is saturated. Therefore, a minimum age is given. Table $1. OSL age analytical data from Aberystwyth Luminescence Research Laboratory
The geographical location of dated sites is shown in Fig. S2 and dated sample locations within each section are shown in Fig. $4. *The number of aliquots measured is shown, with the number of aliquots passing all rejection criteria (and used in age calculation) shown ‘og refers to the overdispersion parameter of Galbraith, et al. (1) used to assess the dose distribution. ‘Galbraith RM, Green PF (1990) Estimating the component ages in a finite mixture. Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurements 17:197-206. *CAM refers to the central age model, and FMM to the finite mixture model [Galbraith, et al. (1)]. ‘Galbraith RM, Green PF (1990) Estimating the component ages in a finite mixture. Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurements 17:197-206. 5The equivalent doses, dose rates, and ages are shown to three significant figures. All calculations were made prior to rounding. "The luminescence signal of sample at the base of Marot is saturated. Therefore, a minimum age is given. Table $1. OSL age analytical data from Aberystwyth Luminescence Research Laboratory
The geographical location of dated sites is shown in Fig. $3, and dated sample locations within each section are shown in Fig. $4. *Water contents taken as 20% of saturation value +10%. ‘og refers to the overdispersion parameter of Galbraith, et al. (2) used to assess the dose distribution. ?Galbraith RM, Green PF (1990) Estimating the component ages in a finite mixture. Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurements 17:197-206. *The equivalent dose are shown to three significant figures with number of aliquots used in parentheses. All calculations were made prior to rounding. SG CAM = single grain using central age model; MG multigrain (medium-size aliquots, approximately 5 mm). 5Dose rates are shown to three significant figures. All calculations were made prior to rounding. ‘Ages are shown to three significant figures. All calculations were made prior to rounding. SG CAM = single grain using central age model; MG = multigrain (medium-size aliquots, approximately 5 mn Table $2. OSL age analytical data from Royal Holloway Luminescence Lab
The geographical location of dated sites is shown in Fig. $3, and dated sample locations within each section are shown in Fig. $4. *Water contents taken as 20% of saturation value +10%. ‘og refers to the overdispersion parameter of Galbraith, et al. (2) used to assess the dose distribution. ?Galbraith RM, Green PF (1990) Estimating the component ages in a finite mixture. Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurements 17:197-206. *The equivalent dose are shown to three significant figures with number of aliquots used in parentheses. All calculations were made prior to rounding. SG CAM = single grain using central age model; MG multigrain (medium-size aliquots, approximately 5 mm). 5Dose rates are shown to three significant figures. All calculations were made prior to rounding. ‘Ages are shown to three significant figures. All calculations were made prior to rounding. SG CAM = single grain using central age model; MG = multigrain (medium-size aliquots, approximately 5 mn Table $2. OSL age analytical data from Royal Holloway Luminescence Lab
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