Earth Sciences

1] The present study delineates the low-latitude thermal structure in the altitude range of 30 to 110 km using Gadanki (13.5°N, 79.2°E) Rayleigh lidar (1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007), Thumba (8.5°N,77°E) rocketsondes , and SABER/TIMED satellite (2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007) observations. This study particularly addresses whether (1) the lidar data available only during nighttime is sufficient to study the background mean thermal structure in 30-80 km altitude region, (2) the nonavailability of the lidar data during cloudy seasons (monsoon) will affect the derived background mean thermal structure, and any alternate satellite observations can be used for getting the thermal structure of the middle atmosphere. The comparisons between temperatures measured by Rayleigh lidar and SABER show good agreement, suggesting that SABER data can be used effectively to study the mean thermal structure. The nocturnal average and diurnal average of temperature from SABER show similar features, suggesting that data available from lidar only during nighttime can be effectively used to study the mean background thermal structure between 30 and 80 km. Large difference between SABER and lidar observations during monsoon suggests that low data rate available from the lidar is not sufficient to obtain the mean thermal structure during cloudy seasons. Beside this, variations in stratopause (mesopause) height and temperature are also studied. The stratopause and mesopause lie in the height region of 47-49 km and 97-99 km, with peak temperature of 265 K and 170 K, respectively. Stratopause height and temperature show clear semiannual oscillation. No significant seasonal variation is observed either in mesopause height or in temperature at this low latitude.

Trivalent chromium is the dominant form in the environment (soil, in many fresh vegetables, fruits, meat, grains) whilst hexavalent chromium is soluble in water and it can migrate in the direction of the groundwater, under highly oxidizing conditions and pH values over 7.
Since September 2007, the University of Athens has started sampling groundwater and surface water and from several sites of the Asopos valley, whereindustrial activities are well known during the last 30 years, in order to investigate the
Cr6+level in drinking water. Concentrations over the maximum level of total Cr in drinking water (50 ppb, according to the EC Regulation) were found in the urban water supply of Oropos (up to 80 ppb Cr6+), Oinofyta (up to 53 ppb) and Nea Ekali (62 ppb Cr6+). High concentrations of Cr6+, ranging from 5 to 33 Cr6+, were also found in the water of the town of Thiva. With the exception of the As, the Pb, Ni, Cu, Cd, Hg, Sb contents in 28 groundwater samples, that are representative of all water types, analyzed for Cr- Cr6+, were lower than permeable limits. High As content (up to 34 ppb As) were detected in central water system of Dilesi.
The contamination of groundwater by Cr6+ that was found in the majority of water drillings in the Asopos valley is related to the widespread industrial activity and the usage of hexavalent chromium in various processes. In order to reduce the concentration of total chromium below the EC maximum contaminant level (50 ppb) and the proposed level for Cr6+ by other countries, remediation strategies should focus on the reduction of Cr6+ to the insoluble trivalent forms, that are relatively stable and non-toxic.
Recently, a removal process of hexavalent chromium, using scrap iron filings, has been proposed: Cr6+ + Fe0 → Cr3+ + Fe3+ Trivalent chromium and total iron can be removed from the aqueous solution by precipitation with alkaline solutions. This is a low-cost method for the reduction of Cr6+. Hexavalent chromium in groundwater of the Asopos valley is related to the anthropogenic activities in that region (from the discharges of Cr-bearing wastes), rather than ultramafic ophiolitic rocks, as is exemplified by a strong positive correlation between Cr6+ and Mg (r = 0.88) only in the latter.
According to the literature and our experimental work, the Cr6+ in the above measured concentrations, can be removed from drinking water by using an activated carbon filter.
Our preliminary results may indicate that all Water Protection Agencies, in addition to those elements listed currently, must require information about the hexavelent chromium as well, in particular in the bottled water. Also, monitoring may help local
municipalities in the Asopos valley to determine where certain contaminants occur and whether the contaminants need to be regulated.

KEYWORDS: Region of Attika, Region of Sterea Hellas, industrial pollution.

Πρόκειται για την πρώτη ερευνητική εργασία που παρουσιάστηκε σε διεθνές επιστημονικό συνέδριο σχετικά με το πρόβλημα της ρύπανσης με εξασθενές χρώμιο στην περιοχή του Ασωπού ποταμου.
Έγινε γεωχημική μελέτη της ρύπανσης του υδροφόρου ορίζοντα στην περιοχή του Ασωπού ποταμού από βιομηχανικά απόβλητα με  εξασθενές χρώμιο και άλλα τοξικά μέταλλα. Τα πειράματά μας έδειξαν ότι το εξασθενές χρώμιο μπορεί να απομακρυνθεί από το πόσιμο νερό με χρήση φίλτρου με ενεργό άνθρακα.

A series of experiments are described where dyed water (a magma analogue) was intruded into solid gelatine (a crustal analogue) to investigate the formation of sills. We considered a layered gelatine system with contrasting adjacent layers. By varying the density and rigidity of the gelatine we found that experimental sills form when the upper layer is more rigid than the lower layer, with intrusion occurring in a plane directly below the interface. Experimental dykes were observed to propagate to the surface when the Young's Modulus ratio of upper to lower gelatine layers was less than one. Experimental dyke arrest occurred when the upper layer was more rigid and the interface was strong. Two varieties of experimental sill formed when the upper layer was more rigid than the lower layer and the interface was sufficiently weak. The form of the intrusion depends on the balance of driving pressures and the Young's Modulus ratio of contrasting adjacent layers. When the rigidity ratio is high and there is a large driving pressure the experimental feeder dyke completely converts to propagate as a sill. However, when the rigidity ratio and driving pressure are both close to one a dyke-sill hybrid forms. Under these conditions the experimental sill formation is accompanied by contemporaneous dyke intrusion into the overlying more rigid layer. During sill propagation deformation structures such as faults and en echelon fractures are formed into the lower layer. Experimental sill propagation dynamics are controlled by viscous dissipation along the length of the sill; causing acceleration with increasing length. Our study suggests that rigidity contrasts may play a major role in the location of sills and development of igneous complexes. In ancient cratonic areas the Moho is a suitable site for the preferential formation of sills with higher rigidity continental crust overlying weaker mantle. Mantle plumes impacting ancient continents provide a situation in which large sills can form to fractionate prior to eruption of flood basalts. The boundary between the upper and lower crust (Conrad discontinuity) may provide a preferential focus for the emplacement of sheets of silicic magma at continental arcs where the lower crust is weakened by prolonged heating and possible hydration.

The observed diversity of dinosaurs reached its highest peak during the mid- and Late Cretaceous, the 50Myr that preceded their extinction, and yet this explosion of dinosaur diversity may be explained largely by sampling bias. It has long been debated whether dinosaurs were part of the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution (KTR), from 125–80Myr ago, when flowering plants, herbivorous and social insects, squamates, birds and mammals all underwent a rapid expansion. Although an apparent explosion of dinosaur diversity occurred in the mid-Cretaceous, coinciding with the emergence of new groups (e.g. neoceratopsians, ankylosaurid ankylosaurs, hadrosaurids and pachycephalosaurs), results from the first quantitative study of diversification applied to a new supertree of dinosaurs show that this apparent burst in dinosaurian diversity in the last 18 Myr of the Cretaceous is a sampling artefact. Indeed, major diversification shifts occurred largely in the first one-third of the group's history. Despite the appearance of new clades of medium to large herbivores and carnivores later in dinosaur history, these new originations do not correspond to significant diversification shifts. Instead, the overall geometry of the Cretaceous part of the dinosaur tree does not depart from the null hypothesis of an equal rates model of lineage branching. Furthermore, we conclude that dinosaurs did not experience a progressive decline at the end of the Cretaceous, nor was their evolution driven directly by the KTR.

1] Long term variations of low-latitude mesospheric semi-annual oscillation (MSAO) and quasi-biennial oscillation (MQBO) in the zonal wind are studied using observations available from 1977 to 2006. The MQBO showed large inter-annual variability in the phase difference between 77.5 km and 72.5 km indicating such variability in eddy viscosity. Association of these oscillations with stratospheric quasi-biennial oscillation (SQBO) is investigated. In general, the MQBO at 77.5 km is out-ofphase with SQBO and this relation fails during strong and long SQBO. The MSAO at 72.5 km and 77.5 km generally shows strong westward phase during strong eastward phase of SQBO. The most striking feature observed in the present study is the strong modulation of the MSAO by MQBO revealing a non-linear type of interaction with presence of sidebands of the MSAO. Citation: Ratnam, M.

A taxonomy of underground economies is elaborated based on the new institutional approach to economic development. Members of formal sectors confront different sets of transformation and transaction costs than do members of informal sectors and these differences are regarded as crucial to the development process. The paper distinguishes illegal, unreported, unrecorded and informal economies and examines the conceptual and empirical linkages among them. Alternative micro and macro methodologies for measuring underground activities are reviewed and evaluated including census and survey procedures, discrepancies and monetary methods. To be published in World Development, Vol 18, No 7, 1990.

The aim of this chapter was to determine the influence of zooplankton organisms on carbon cycling within reservoirs and lakes from Northern Quebec. The first part of the paper presents results from LG-2 reservoir where zooplankton dynamics were followed from 1 year prior to impoundment to 6 years after flooding. In terms of community structure, flooding was associated with an increase in zooplankton biomass with the strongest effects observed for cladocerans and rotifers. This increase was related to changes in the physical characteristics of the sampled sites (water residence time, temperature and turbidity), chemical characteristics of the water (total phosphorus) and the abundance of resources (Chl. a).

The paper presents reading of the description of Cyclopes from Odyssey 9 as an ethnographic text. It addresses the relationship between “ethnographic” account of Cyclopes and archaeological record of pastoral groups from east Adriatic coast and Dinarides.

Radiocarbon sequences from some northern Mediterranean cave sites show a temporal gap between Mesolithic and Neolithic occupations. Some authors regard this as a regional phenomenon and have sought to explain it in terms of a general population decline in the late Mesolithic, which facilitated the replacement of indigenous foragers by immigrant farmers. New evidence from the rockshelter site of Mala Triglavca, in Slovenia, leads us to question this view. We describe the deposits in the rockshelter and discuss the results of AMS radiocarbon dating of bone samples recovered in excavations in the 1980s. New archaeological investigations and associated soil/sediment analyses show that in the central part of the rockshelter a well-defined stratigraphic sequence can be established, despite post-depositional modification by soil forming processes. There is also evidence of substantial post-depositional disturbance of the cave sediments by human agency and geomorphological processes, which have created “temporal gaps” and “inversions” in the radiocarbon sequence. The relatively large series of radiocarbon dates obtained enables some of the post-depositional processes to be identified.

The reproductive cycles of four Mediterranean demosponges (Axinella damicornis, Corticium candelabrum, Raspaciona aculeata, and Chondrosia reniformis) were investigated during 2 consecutive years. Three of the species had annual gametogenic cycles characterized by a single peak of gamete production, but members of C. candelabrum showed continuous oocyte production during the 2 years. The relationship between gametogenic dynamics and seawater temperature varied substantially among species, contrary to the widespread belief that gamete production is associated with seasonal water warming. The annual temperature increase (in June) concurred with oocyte production only in C. reniformis, although maximum temperatures were simultaneous with the production of both oocytes in R. aculeata and sperm in C. reniformis. In contrast, the annual temperature decline in October was associated with both oogenesis in A. damicornis and spermatogenesis in R. aculeata. Spermatogenesis in A. damicornis started after a 5-month period of low-temperature values (December-April in 2004 and November-March in 2005). Likewise, in C. candelabrum, spermatogenesis started after a 3-month period of low-temperature values (November-February), a period concomitant with a slow increase in oocyte production. These findings reveal that sponge species that cooccur and share similar thermal regimes may differ substantially in their timing of gamete production. If we are to predict the future effects of climate change on marine benthic communities, there is an urgent need to improve our knowledge of the species-specific relationship between timing of gametogenesis and temperature, at least for those sponges that are key species in benthic communities.

The Late Ordovician (Hirnantian) glaciation is examined through the North Gondwana record. This domain extended from southern high palaeo-latitudes (southeastern Mauritania, Niger) to northern lower palaeo-latitudes (Morocco, Turkey) and covered a > 4000 km wide section perpendicular to ice-flow lines. A major mid-Hirnantian deglaciation event subdividing the Hirnantian glaciation in two first-order cycles is recognised. As best illustrated by the glacial record in western Libya, each cycle comprises 2-3 glacial phases separated by ice-front retreats several hundreds kilometres to the south. From ice-proximal to ice-distal regions, the number of glacial surfaces differentiates a continental interior (post-glacial reworking of the glacial surfaces), a glaciated continental shelf that is subdivided into inner (1-2 surfaces), middle (2-5 surfaces) and outer (a single surface related to the glacial maximum) glaciated shelves, and the non-glaciated shelf. Ice-stream generated glacial troughs, 50-200 km in width, crosscut these 2 domains. These troughs are zones of preferential glacial erosion and subsequent sediment accumulation. A glacial depositional sequence, bounded by two glacial erosion surfaces, records one glacial phase. The position either within or outside a glacial trough controls the stratigraphic architecture of a glacial sequence. Glaciomarine outwash diamictites are developed at or near the
ice-front maximum position. During ice-sheet recession, and in an ice-stream generated trough, a relatively thin sediment cover blankets the foredeepened erosion surface. An initial rapid ice-sheet withdrawal is inferred. Marine-terminating ice fronts then evolve later in more slowly retreating, land-terminating ice fronts. In adjacent inter-stream areas where a more gradual ice-sheet recession occurred, fluvio-glacial deposits prevailed. The progradation of a delta-shelf system coeval with fluvial aggradation that may be locally interrupted by a period of isostatic rebound characterises the late glacial retreat to interglacial conditions. This model should facilitate the sequence stratigraphic interpretation of Late Ordovician glacial deposits and other ancient glacial
successions.

Landsat images, ASTER digital elevation models, aerial photographs, and field investigations in the western Murzuq Basin (Libya) and the adjacent Tassili N’Ajjers (Algeria) provide paleogeomorphological evidence for the existence of a Late Ordovician ice stream at least 200 km long and 80 km wide. This includes mega-scale glacial lineations, an associated subglacial meltwater drainage system, and ice-front features. This first comprehensive description of a pre-Cenozoic ice stream may help to identify other examples in the Proterozoic to Paleozoic glacial record. Reconstruction of the extent and behavior of former ice sheets and reservoir prospect analysis in glacially related successions have to take into account the potential occurrence of ice streams.

New petrographic and chemical data of volcanic rocks from the Metales Belt, Rio de las Tunas area, in the Frontal
Cordillerao f Argentinaa re presented.T he rocks display a broadlyb asaltic composition.‘ PNOv arieties of basaltic dikes can be differentiated.
One group, whose mineralogy comprise essentially tremolite-actinolite,p lagioclase, pyroxene and limited amounts of
olivine as the main phases, display metamorphic textures. The other group show porphyritic textures consisting of zoned plagio&
se and K-feldspar. Zoned orthopyroxenes are scarce. Chemically, the rocks are similar to the Caradocian basaltic rocks (the
ofiolitas famatinianas) from the Precordillera, San Juan Province. REE chondrite-normal&d patterns and overall abundances,
along with other petrologic and geochemical similarities, suggest a common mode of origin for both groups of basaltic rocks. Their
geochemical and petrographicalc haracateristicsa re consistent with a continental-scalee xtension environmentd uring Eopalaeozoic
times that could include an oceanic rift in an early stage of development, a transitional ridge segment or oceanic intraplate
magmas, similar to those erupted in oceanic islands.

This study investigated the effectiveness of two different inoculation techniques of Plasmodiophora brassicae into a susceptible cultivar-Marathon of Broccoli (Brassicae oleraceae) seedlings by comparing the sequential disease developmental stages including root hair, cortical cell infection, time of gall initiation and disease severity upto 36 days after inoculation (DAI) under microscopic observation. The first inoculation method involving the extraction of resting spore through a series of centrifugation and then injecting the extracted spores suspension into the root zone of 10 days old seedlings and second one was to amend the potting mix/soil with inoculum slurry by blending infected club roots and distilled water 24 hours prior to seed sown. Seedlings inoculated with both of the methods produced symptomatic roots typical of club root. Soil inoculation by inoculum slurry gave clubbed roots weighing significantly more than those of plants inoculated by injecting spore suspension. Soil inoculation technique produced roots weighing 21% more than spore suspension technique. Remarkable variation was noted in the primary and secondary infection stages due to inoculation methods.  At 8 DAI, 56% matured sporangia (MS) and 82% completely evacuated sporangia (CES) at 16 DAI by soil inoculation was observed while only 45% MS at 8DAI and 48% CES at 16 DAI were recorded.  Similarly, in cortical cell infection stage, 100% cell infection was observed by soil inoculation at 28DAI but spore suspension method gave only 20% cortical cell infection at 20 DAI and even 90% at 36 DAI. It is evident that soil inoculation method with infected root slurry is more effective and fast to maintain researcher’s own stock of organism for efficient experimental use.

Thermal waters systems in Western Turkey around the Marmara sea within the areas of Kuzuluk/Adapazari, Bursa, the Yalova Peninsula with the three spa centres of Yalova, Armutlu and Gemlik, the spa and geothermal plant of Gönen and the areas at the Aegean coast of Kestanbol, Tuzla and Bergama ( ) were studied in the years 1988 to 1996 in the frame of the ITÜ/ETH Poly-Project [1] and from 1999 to 2001 again as part of the IAEA coordinated project on "Investigation of Long Term Influences on Groundwater Systems (IAEA CRP Nr. 10730/ R0)". Beside long term fluctuations of several isotope and chemical parameters the effects of the August 17 th 1999 Izmit earthquake clearly have been recognised in the composition of thermal and mineral waters in the most affected areas along the North Anatolian Fault Zone of Kuzuluk, Bursa, and Armutlu, Yalova, Gemlik based on groundwater sampling campaigns before (July 1999) and after that event (October 1999). These changes were observed in the isotopic composition as e.g. 3 H, 2 H and 18 O, 34 S and 18 O in SO 4 and 13 C of the dissolved species of inorganic carbon. Also changes in chemical constituents and physical parameters have been observed. According to our interpretation these changes are most probably related to the active tectonics of the area and induced groundwater circulation.

Until recently, the genus Epicrates (Boidae) presented only one continental species, Epicrates cenchria, distributed in Central and South America, but after a taxonomic revision using morphologic characters five species were recognized: E. cenchria, E. crassus, E. maurus, E. assisi, and E. alvarezi. We analyzed two independent data sets, environmental niche models and phylogeny based on molecular information, to explore species delimitation in the continental species of this genus. Our results indicated that the environmental requirements of the species are different; therefore there are not evidences of ecological interchangeability among them. There is a clear correlation between species distributions and the major biogeographic regions of Central and South America. Their overall distribution reveals that allopatry or parapatry is the general pattern. These evidences suggest that habitat isolation prevents or limits gene exchange among them. The phylogenetic reconstruction showed that the continental Epicrates are monophyletic, being E. alvarezi the sister species for the remaining two clades: E. crassus -E. assisi, and E. maurus -E. cenchria. The clade grouping the continental Epicrates is the sister taxon of the genus Eunectes and not of the Caribbean Epicrates clade, indicating that the genus is paraphyletic. There is a non-consistent pattern in niche evolution among continental Epicrates. On the contrary, a high variation and abrupt shifts in environmental variables are shown when ancestral character states were reconstructed on the sequence-based tree. The degree of genetic and ecological divergence among continental Epicrates and the phylogenetic analyses support the elevation to full species of E. cenchria, E. crassus, E. maurus, E. assisi, and E. alvarezi.

We report on a detailed analysis of amplitude anomalies in three-dimensional (3D) seismic reflection data and their surrounding strata in the shallow subsurface of the northern part of the Indus Submarine Fan, Arabian Sea. Our analysis reveals the presence of distributary lobe complexes and a relict fluid migration system, including a buried mud volcano, linked to contractional anticlines overlying deep-seated strike-slip faults buried below the Indus slope. Building on a regional tectonic and stratigraphic framework, we have used a 3D seismic survey to map in detail the occurrence of high-amplitude anomalies in the shallow subsurface. We link these to gas hydrate and free gas accumulations hosted within distal distributary lobes deposited on the Indus slope and supplied by underlying focused fluid flow system along a fault zone. Our results suggest that the seismic amplitude anomalies may be classified as a weak ‘‘bottom-simulating reflection’’ (BSR) formed during a paleofluid flow event in the northern Indus Fan (~5–1.8 Ma). Present-day fluid influx is low.

The role of hotter than ambient plumemantle in the formation of a rifted volcanic margin in the northern Arabian Sea is investigated using subsidence analysis of a drill site located on the seismically defined Somnath volcanic ridge. The ridge has experienced >4 km of subsidence since 65 Ma and lies within oceanic lithosphere. We estimate crustal thickness to be 9.5–11.5km. Curiously <400mof the thermal subsidence occurred prior to 37Ma, when subsidence rates would normally be at a maximum. We reject the hypothesis that this was caused by increasing plume dynamic support after continental break-up because the size of the thermal anomalies required
are unrealistic (>600 °C), especially considering the rapid northward drift of India relative to the Deccan-Réunion hotspot.We suggest that this reflects very slowlithospheric growth, possibly caused by vigorous asthenospheric convection lasting >28 m.y., and induced by the steep continent–ocean boundary. Post-rift slow subsidence is also recognized on volcanic margins in the NE Atlantic and SE Newfoundland and cannot be used as a unique indicator of plume mantle involvement in continental break-up.

Two different fly ashes (FAs) have been tested for their ability to give synthetic zeolitic products. Polish bituminous (PB) and South African (SA) coal fly ash (FA) samples derived from pilot-scale circulated fluidized bed (CFB) combustion facilities have been utilized as raw material. The two FAs underwent a hydrothermal activation with 1M NaOH solution at 90 °C for 24 h. Two different FA/NaOH solution/ratios (50, 100 g/L) were examined for each FA. For lower FA/NaOH solution ratios, the excess of NaOH seems to be prohibitive for the zeolite growth while for a ratio higher than 100 g/L the NaOH quantity seems to be insufficient for the effective activation of the FAs. The experimental products were characterized by means of X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) while X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) was applied for the determination of their chemical composition and the trace elements concentration. Regarding the PB-CFB FA, the following zeolitic materials were formed: Na-Al-Si Zeolite A (Na), K-Al-Si Zeolite A (K) and Erionite. For the SA-CFB FA, the zeolitic materials formed were: ZSM-18, K-Ca-Al-Si-Hydrate Unnamed Zeolite, Erionite and Linde (L). The zeolitic products were also evaluated in terms of their cation exchange capacity (CEC), specific surface area (SSA), specific gravity (SG), particle size distribution (PSD), pH and the range of their micro- and macroporosity. The products were characterized by finer particle size concerning SA-CFB FA, while PB-CFB FA showed an increase of the percentage of the fine particles. The pH value of FAs before and after the hydrothermal activation for all the proportions is 11.3 to 11.9 and a condensation occurs by nucleophilic attack of OH-. The values of CEC, SSA along with the efficiency of pores were higher for FA/NaOH = 100 g/L. The current work focuses on testing the synthesized zeolitic materials of the aforementioned zeolification process for their potential of retaining heavy metals from a contaminated soil.   

Keywords:  CFB fly ash; synthetic zeolites; alkaline activation; bituminous coal

In this paper the fly ash, which is the finest residue of the lignite combustion entrapped by electrostatic filters at the electrical power stations, is examined, in order to determine the possibility of its usage in the production of concrete. It is implemented by testing concrete models in actual scale. Mineralogical, petrographical and chemical analyses of the fly ash as well as of the produced concrete are presented. The concrete that was produced by cement, sand, water, aggregates and fly ash (in various percentages) showed micro-cracks in its structure, due to the reduced interconnection of the fly ash with the aggregates. Nevertheless, the fly ash may act as adhesive material, as well as the material that fills the cracks of the concrete. Tests of the strength on models made by this concrete have shown comparable results in strength with reference concrete produced without ash. It is concluded that the mixing of fly ash in concrete does not affect its strength and sometimes it fills the cracks of the concrete mass.

Μελέτη της δυνατότητας χρήσης ιπτάμενης τέφρας στο σκυρόδεμα.

Paper in the Ash Library (http://www.flyash.info/) in the web http://www.flyash.info/2005/15kou.pdf .

The aim of this work is to define the chemical and mineralogical composition of the fuel gas desulphurization (FGD) gypsum produced from the Meliti thermal power plant in the region of Florina in North West Greece, in order to investigate potential uses in the cement industry. Mineralogical and microprobe analyses were carried out on FGD gypsum samples collected from the Meliti 330 MW lignite-fired power plant.
Results show that the main component of the FGD gypsum is pure mineral gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O). The particle size of the gypsum ranges from 5 to 50 µm and the crystals are mainly of rhomboid shape. Microprobe analysis shows that the concentration of CaO and SO3, which are the main components, range from 31.9%-32.5% and from 45.90-46.40%, respectively. 
This FGD gypsum can easily substitute the natural gypsum used in the production of cement. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry

Ορυκτολογική και ορυκτοχημική μελέτη της γύψου που προκύπτει ως παραπροϊόν κατά τη διαδικασία της αποθείωσης των καυσαερίων στο λιγνητικό σταθμό της Φλώρινα. Δυνατοότητες αξιοποίησής της στην τσιμεντοβιομηχανία.

Trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) is considered to be essential for the human metabolism, whilst hexavalent (Cr(VI)) is very toxic and soluble in water and can be migrated into the direction of the groundwater. Using the GFAAS and ICP-MS for total chromium, diphenylcarbazide-Cr(VI)-complex colorimetric method for hexavalent chromium, and flame-AAS and ICP-MS for other elements, their concentrations were determined in 63 surface and groundwater samples from the Thiva – Tanagra – Malakasa basin, Eastern Sterea Hellas, Greece.
In that area, which is notorious for the industrial activities during the last 40 years, significant chromium concentrations were determined in the urban water supply of Oropos (up to 80 μg/L Cr(VI)) and Inofyta (up to 53 μg/L Cr(VI)). High concentrations of Cr(VI), ranging from 5 to 33 μg/L Cr(VI), were also found in the groundwater that is used for the urban water supply of the town of Thiva (NW).  High As content (up to 34 μg/L As) among with Cr(VI) (up to 40 μg/L) were detected in the urban water supply of Schimatari. In the Asopos River, although total chromium values are up to 13 μg/L, hexavalent chromium less than 5 mg/L and other toxic elements were relatively low, during our research, their values suggest a connection with the industrial activity in the area.
The pollution of groundwater by Cr(VI) in the majority of water wells in the Thiva – Tanagra – Malakasa basin, is related to the widespread industrial activity, the usage of hexavalent chromium in various processes and the discharges of Cr-bearing wastes.

- Greek Abstract

Η παρούσα είναι η πρώτη ερευνητική εργασία που δημοσιεύτηκε σε επιστημονικό περιοδικό, με κριτές, σχετικά με το πρόβλημα της ρύπανσης από εξασθενές χρώμιο στην ευρύτερη περιοχή του Ασωπού ποταμού.

ΤΟ ΕΞΑΣΘΕΝΕΣ ΧΡΩΜΙΟ ΚΑΙ ΑΛΛΑ ΤΟΞΙΚΑ ΣΤΟΙΧΕΙΑ ΣΤΑ ΥΠΟΓΕΙΑ ΚΑΙ ΤΑ ΕΠΙΦΑΝΕΙΑΚΑ ΥΔΑΤΑ ΤΗΣ ΠΕΡΙΟΧΗΣ ΘΗΒΑΣ -ΤΑΝΑΓΡΑΣ - ΜΑΛΑΚΑΣΑΣ.

ΠΕΡΙΛΗΨΗ

Το τρισθενές χρώμιο (Cr(III)) θεωρείται απαραίτητο στον ανθρώπινο μεταβολισμό, ενώ το εξασθενές (Cr(VI)) είναι ιδιαίτερα τοξικό και ευδιάλυτο στο νερό και μπορεί να μεταφέρεται στο υπόγειο και επιφανειακό νερό. Οι συγκεντρώσεις εξασθενούς χρωμίου, ολικού χρωμίου, καθώς και άλλων τοξικών στοιχείων προσδιορίστηκαν σε 63 δείγματα επιφανειακών και υπογείων νερών από την Κεντρική Εύβοια και την λεκάνη Θήβας –Τανάγρας–Μαλακάσας της Ανατολικής Στερεάς Ελλάδος. Οι αναλύσεις έγιναν με χρήση GFAAS και ICP-MS για το ολικό χρώμιο, flame-AAS και ICP-MS για τον προσδιορισμό των υπόλοιπων στοιχείων και χρωματομετρίας με τη χρήση του συμπλόκου diphenylcarbazide-Cr(VI) για το εξασθενές χρώμιο. 
Στην λεκάνη της Θήβας –Τανάγρας–Μαλακάσας, γνωστή για τη βιομηχανική δραστηριότητα τα τελευταία 40 χρόνια, προσδιορίστηκαν σημαντικές συγκεντρώσεις χρωμίου στο νερό του δικτύου υδροδότησης του Ωρωπού  (μέχρι 80 μg/L Cr(VI)) και των Οινοφύτων (μέχρι 53 μg/L Cr(VI)). Υψηλές συγκεντρώσεις εξασθενούς χρωμίου, κυμαινόμενες από 5 έως 33 μg/L, προσδιορίστηκαν και στο υπόγειο νερό, το οποίο τροφοδοτεί το δίκτυο υδροδότησης της πόλης των Θηβών (ΒΔ). Υψηλές περιεκτικότητες σε αρσενικπ (As) [μέχρι 34 μg/L As] μαζί με Cr(VI) [μέχρι 40 μg/L] προσδιορίστηκαν στο δίκτυο υδροδότησης του Σχηματαρίου.
Στον ποταμό Ασωπό, αν και το ολικό χρώμιο φθάνει τα  13 μg/L, το εξασθενές χρώμιο είναι λιγότερο από 5 mg/L. Γενικά, οι συγκεντρώσεις  των  τοξικών στοιχείων στον Ασωπό ήταν σχετικά χαμηλές κατά τη διάρκεια της μελέτης μας, αλλά οι τιμές τους υποδηλώνουν την σχέση τους με τη βιομηχανική δραστηριότητα της περιοχής.
Η ρύπανση του υδροφόρου ορίζοντα από Cr(VI), που προσδιορίσθηκε στην πλειονότητα των γεωτρήσεων στην λεκάνη Θήβας–Τανάγρας–Μαλακάσας, σχετίζεται με τη χρήση του εξασθενούς χρωμίου και άλλων τοξικών μετάλλων σε ποικίλες διεργασίες και την υπεδάφια απόρριψη χρωμιούχων βιομηχανικών αποβλήτων.

Asopos River, Attika, Viotia
Ποταμός Ασωπός, Αττική, Βοιωτία

Kurzfassung: Die urspr~nglich als Eurypteride beschriebene Wiltwerathia laticeps (STORMER 1936) wird nunmehr als An-geh6rige der Synziphosurina erkannt und der Familie Weinberginidae RICHTER • RICHTER 1929 zugeordnet. Unter Beriicksichtigung aller erh~iltlichen Daten l~iBt sich an neu aufgesammeltem, zumeist disartikuliertem Material vonder Lokali-t~it, aus der der verschollene Holotypus stammt, darauf schlie-Ben, dab das Opisthosoma von Willwerathia zehn Tergite um-fal3te. Mit einer Carapax-Breite von etwa 90 mm war Willwerathia laticeps die gr6Bte bisher bekannte Synziphosurinen-Art. Das gemeinsame Vorkommen von Synziphosurinen und Eurypteriden best~itigt die Erkenntnisse fiber bereits frtiher beschriebene Taphoz6nosen. Abstract: Willwerathia laticeps (STORMER 1936) originally described as a eurypterid is reinterpreted as a synziphosurine belonging to Family Weinberginidae RICHTER 8z RICHTER 1929. Recently collected material from the locality, from which the destroyed holotype comes, suggests that Willwerathia possessed ten opisthosomal tergites, deduced from all available arrays of disarticulates. Willwerathia is the largest synzipho-sHrine yet discovered with a carapace approximately 90 mm across. The occurrence of synziphosurines with eurypterids mirrors previously described preservational associations.

Management of powerline corridors in Australia has traditionally focused on the complete removal of vegetation using short rotation times owing to the perceived hazard of fire associated with corridor vegetation. Because of the intense management associated with fire hazards, little thought has been given to use of powerline corridors by wildlife. This has resulted in corridors traditionally being viewed as a source of fragmentation and habitat loss within forested ecosystems. We investigated the responses of small mammal communities living in a powerline corridor to management-induced vegetation changes at different successional stages, to determine whether a compromise could be reached between managing corridors for fire and biodiversity. Habitat modelling in the corridor and adjacent forest for three native and one introduced small mammal species demonstrated that species responded to changes in vegetation structural complexity, rather than time-since-management per se. Early seral stages of vegetation recovery after corridor management encouraged the introduced house mouse (Mus domesticus) into corridors and contributed little to biodiversity. Mid-seral-stage vegetation, however, provided habitat for native species that were rare in adjacent forest habitats. As the structural complexity of the vegetation increased, the small mammal community became similar to that of the forest so that corridor vegetation contributed fewer biodiversity benefits while posing an unacceptable fire risk. If ecologically sensitive management regimes are implemented to encourage mid-seral vegetation and avoid complete vegetation removal, powerline corridors have the potential to improve biodiversity. This would maintain landscape connectivity and provide habitat for native species uncommon in the forest while still limiting fuel loads in the corridor.

New millipede specimens from the Paleozoic of Scotland are described, including Archidesmus macnicoli , from the Lower Devonian (Lochkovian) Tillywhandland Quarry SSSI and three new taxa—Albadesmus almondi, Pneumodesmus newmani, and Cowiedesmus eroticopodus—from the mid Silurian (late Wenlock—early Ludlow) Cowie Formation at Cowie Harbour. Cowiedesmus eroticopodus new species is placed within the new Cowiedesmidae within the new order Cowiedesmida. Kampecaris tuberculata Brade-Birks from the Lower Devonian (Siegenian) of the Lanark Basin near Dunure is shown not to be a kampecarid myriapod, redescribed as Palaeodesmus tuberculata and placed order incertae sedis within Archipolypoda. Anthracodesmus macconochiei Peach is also redescribed and tentatively placed order incertae sedis within Archipolypoda. Archidesmus macnicoli, Albadesmus almondi, and Palaeodesmus tuberculata are each demonstrated to have broad sternites with laterally placed coxal sockets and paramedian pores containing paired valves. These pores are interpreted as having housed eversible vesicles. Some specimens of Archidesmus macnicoli and Cowiedesmus eroticopodus are male and have a pair of modified legs on trunk segment 8, identified as leg pairs 10 and 11, respectively. The presence of modified anterior legs restricted to segment 8 increases the range of variability known in modified appendage location in male millipedes and compounds existing uncertainty about using the presence of gonopods on trunk segment 7 as a synapomorphy of Helminthomorpha. An affinity between Archidesmida and Cowiedesmida is suggested based on possession of modified legs on segment 8 and Archidesmida + Cowiedesmida is placed along with Euphoberiida in Archipolypoda based on possession of free, broad sternites with bivalved paramedian pores and fused pleurotergites. The oldest known evidence of spiracles is demonstrated in Pneumodesmus newmani, proving that the oldest known millipedes were fully terrestrial.

"A fossil harvestman (Arachnida, Opiliones) from the Mississippian (Visean: Brigantian)of East Kirkton, Scotland is described as Brigantibunum listoni new genus and species. At ca. 340 Ma, it represents the second oldest record of Opiliones. Although some details are lacking, this long-legged,
small-bodied and rather gracile harvestman is surprisingly modern-looking and appears to show the impression of an annulate ovipositor. Its leg anatomy closely matches that of some living Eupnoi and it is tentatively referred to this clade. Like the newly discovered Rhynie chert harvestmen, it reinforces the idea that modern, crown-group Opiliones can be traced back to at least the mid-Paleozoic."

The species-level diversity of fossil Chelicerata is summarized for each order. 1952 valid species of fossil chelicerates are currently recognized, of which 1593 are arachnids. In order of abundance they are: Araneae (979 fossil species), Actinotrichida (283), Eurypterida (241), Scorpiones (111), Xiphosura (96), Trigonotarbida (71), Pseudoscorpiones (38), Phalangiotarbida (30), Opiliones , Ricinulei (15), and Anactinotrichida . Other groups are represented by ten fossil species or fewer. Based on published descriptions, spiders thus appear to dominate the fossil arachnid species assemblage, making up a greater proportion of paleodiversity than their Recent diversity would predict. Scorpions are also overrepresented, particularly in the Paleozoic, compared to their modern diversity. By contrast, groups like mites, harvestmen, pseudoscorpions and solifuges are noticeably under-represented as fossils when compared to modern patterns of diversity.

1] Aseismic deformation transients can emerge as a natural outcome of the rate and state friction processes revealed in laboratory fault-sliding experiments. When that constitutive formulation is applied to model subduction earthquake sequences, transients can arise spontaneously for certain effective stress ( s) variations with depth. We show that if interstitial fluids are present and pore pressure is near-lithostatic around and downdip from the frictional stability transition, transients with recurrence intervals of $1 year are predicted on the basis of laboratory friction parameters and their temperature (hence depth) variations. The recurrence interval decreases with s and reaches 14 months when s is $2-3 MPa. Dimensional analysis and numerical studies show that the fault response primarily depends on a parameter W/h*. Here the high pore pressure zone extends distance W updip from the stability transition, and h* is the stable patch size for steady sliding.

1] Recent, detailed examinations of fault zones show that walls of faults are often bordered by materials that are different from each other and from the more uniform material farther away. In addition, they show that the ultracataclastic core of mature fault zones, where slip is concentrated, is less permeable to flow across it than the adjoining material of the damage zone. Inhomogeneous slip at the interface between materials with different poroelastic properties and permeabilities causes a change in pore pressure there. Because slip causes compression on one side of the fault wall and extension on the other, the pore pressure on the fault increases substantially when the compressed side is significantly more permeable and decreases when, instead, the extended side is more permeable. This change in pore pressure alters the effective normal stress on the slip plane in a way that is analogous to the normal stress alteration in sliding between elastically dissimilar solids. The magnitude of the effect due to induced pore pressure can be comparable to or larger than that induced by sliding between elastic solids with a dissimilarity of properties consistent with seismic observations. The induced pore pressure effect is increased by increasing contrast in permeability, but the normal stress alteration due to elastic contrast increases rapidly as the rupture velocity approaches the generalized Rayleigh velocity. Because the alteration in effective normal stress due to either effect can be positive or negative, depending on the contrast in properties, the two effects can augment or offset each other.

1] Pore pressure changes are rigorously included in Coulomb stress calculations for fault interaction studies. These are considered changes under undrained conditions for analyzing very short term postseismic response. The assumption that pore pressure is proportional to faultnormal stress leads to the widely used concept of an effective friction coefficient. We provide an exact expression for undrained fault zone pore pressure changes to evaluate the validity of that concept. A narrow fault zone is considered whose poroelastic parameters are different from those in the surrounding medium, which is assumed to be elastically isotropic. We use conditions for mechanical equilibrium of stress and geometric compatibility of strain to express the effective normal stress change within the fault as a weighted linear combination of mean stress and faultnormal stress changes in the surroundings. Pore pressure changes are determined by fault-normal stress changes when the shear modulus within the fault zone is significantly smaller than in the surroundings but by mean stress changes when the elastic mismatch is small. We also consider an anisotropic fault zone, introducing a Skempton tensor for pore pressure changes. If the anisotropy is extreme, such that fluid pressurization under constant stress would cause expansion only in the fault-normal direction, then the effective friction coefficient concept applies exactly. We finally consider moderately longer timescales than those for undrained response. A sufficiently permeable fault may come to local pressure equilibrium with its surroundings even while that surrounding region may still be undrained, leading to pore pressure change determined by mean stress changes in those surroundings.

Tms PAPER investigates the hypothesis that localization of deformation into a shear band may be considered a result of an instability in the constitutive description of homogeneous deformation. General conditions for a bifurcation, corresponding to the localization of deformation into a planar band, are derived. Although the analysis is general and applications to other localization phenomena are noted, the constitutive relations which are examined in application of the criterion for IocaIization are intended to model the behavior of brittle rock masses under compressive principal stresses. These relations are strongly pressure-sensitive since inelasticity results from frictional sliding on an array of fissures; the resulting inelastic response is dilatant, owing to uplift in sliding at asperities and to local tensile cracking from fissure tips. The appropriate constitutive descriptions involve non-normality of plastic strain increments to the yield hyper-surface. Also, it is argued that the subsequent yield surfaces will develop a vertex-like structure. Both of these features are shown to be destabilizing and to strongly influence the resulting predictions for localization by comparison to predictions based on classical plasticity idealizations, involving normality and smooth yield surfaces. These results seem widely applicable to discussions of the inception of rupture as a ~nstitutive instability.

The present article describes VAS Generator (www.vasgenerator.net), a free Web service for creating a wide
range of visual analogue scales that can be used as measurement devices in Web surveys and Web experimentation, as well as for local computerized assessment. A step-by-step example for creating and implementing a visual analogue scale with visual feedback is given. VAS Generator and the scales it generates work independently of platforms and use the underlying languages HTML and JavaScript. Results from a validation study with 355 participants are reported and show that the scales generated with VAS Generator approximate an interval-scale level. In light of previous research on visual analogue versus categorical (e.g., radio button) scales in Internet-based research, we conclude that categorical scales only reach ordinal-scale level, and thus visual analogue scales are to be preferred whenever possible.

Chemical U– Th – Pb dating of monazite from 12 schists throughout western and central Tasmania define a peak metamorphic age of ca 510 Ma. This age is very close to the age of arc – continent collision and ophiolite emplacement, implying very rapid uplift and cooling. To the south, along the western margin of the South Tasman Rise, metamorphism occurred later at 495 Ma, which correlates with a late stage of the Ross Orogeny, Antarctica. The Tyennan Orogeny in Tasmania has a three-stage history similar in age to the Delamerian Orogeny in South Australia. However, the Tyennan Orogeny only produced metamorphic rocks during the early stage associated with ophiolite obduction at 515 – 505 Ma. The intense compressional event recognised in the Delamerian and Ross Orogeny at 500 – 495 Ma is correlated with a mild basin inversion in Tasmania, and no metamorphism on mainland Tasmania has been recognised associated with this event. The westernmargin of the South Tasman Rise is a fragment of the Ross Orogen and does not correlate directly with Tasmania.

Eclogite-facies rocks along the Paleozoic active margin of Gondwana are rare. They are limited to isolated segments of northern Victoria Land (Antarctica), western Tasmania and south-eastern Australia. New petrological data for mafic rocks and their host garnet-kyanite schists from the Franklin Metamorphic Complex (western Tasmania) permit reconstruction of six main stages of mineral growth for the eclogite.  Stage I and II occurred at greenschist/amphibolite-facies conditions (ca. 500-600 °C; 0.55-0.7 GPa for stage II) before attaining high pressure conditions (at ≈600-650 °C; > 1.5 GPa - stage III). The following stages, IV and V, record the decompression from high pressure conditions to amphibolite facies (ca. 500-600 °C; 0.4-1.0 GPa). Finally, stage VI represents the late greenschist-facies retrogression. However, the pelitic schist, surrounding the eclogite, records only the medium-pressure amphibolite-facies stage. The P-T evolution over time outlines a clockwise path which is quite steep both in the prograde and retrograde segments. The latter shows a nearly isothermal decompression between the eclogite and the high pressure amphibolite-facies stage IV which was achieved at deep crustal levels (≈ 30 km), and a final decrease in both pressure and temperature from deep/intermediate to shallow crustal levels with a typical cooling-unloading path. The lack of a complete re-equilibration during the different stages and the high dP/dT for both the prograde and retrograde paths are indicative of a rapid burial and initially rapid exhumation. The similarity of the mafic whole rock chemical composition including N, T to E – MORB and of the peak metamorphic age (≈ 500 Ma) between the Tasmanian eclogites and the UHP rocks from northern Victoria Land supports the idea that they formed in the context of the same contractional event. However, the different P-T conditions and dP/dT point to different tectono-metamorphic settings for the two sectors of the paleo-Pacific margin of Gondwana during the Ross/Tyennan orogeny.

Drinking water quality guidelines are often interpreted by the non-expert as make or break cut-off values below which drinking water is absolutely safe, and above which it is totally unacceptable. In reality there is no such knifelike cut-off limit, and there is a large grey area between safe water and undrinkable water. The uncertainty of the boundaries of the grey area for each constituent presents a serious problem, both in the creation of sound drinking water quality guidelines or standards, and in the problem of how to interpret the risk to human health when guideline values are exceeded. In this paper this problem is discussed using the case of arsenic, where the definition of the boundaries of the grey area is particularly uncertain.

Keywords: drinking water quality, guideline interpretation, arsenic, uncertainties

1.  In cannibalistic populations, smaller individuals are subject to predation by larger conspecifics, and small individuals commonly alter their behaviour in response to cannibals. Little is known, however, about the underlying cues that trigger such responses and how the behavioural responses to conspecific cannibals differ from heterospecific predators. 
2.  This study tests which cues are used for the detection of conspecific predators in the larva of the dragonfly  Plathemis lydia  and how the behavioural response to cannibals differed from the response to heterospecific predators.
3.  Individuals were exposed to chemical cues, visual cues, and a combination of both cues from conspecifics as well as no predator and heterospecific predator controls during which their activity and feeding rates were observed. 
4.  Individuals increased their activity, spatial movement and feeding behaviour in response to either visual or chemical cues from conspecific predators, which was opposite to responses displayed with cues from heterospecific predators. Interestingly, the responses to visual and chemical cues from conspecifics combined were weaker than to either cue in isolation and similar to the no cue control. 
5.  The results clearly indicate that individuals are able to use chemical and visual cues to detect even very subtle differences in phenotype of conspecific predators. 
6.  The opposite response in behaviour when exposed to conspecific cannibals vs. heterospecific predators suggests that the presence of cannibals will increase the mortality risk of small individuals due to heterospecific predation. This risk-enhancement is likely to have important consequences for the dynamics of predator – prey interactions.

Recent studies have shown that anguillid eel populations in habitats spanning the marine–freshwater ecotone can display extreme plasticity in the range of catadromy expressed by individual fishes. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis was used to differentiate between European eels (Anguilla anguilla) collected along a short (2 km) salinity gradient ranging from <1‰ to ~30‰ in Lough Ahalia, a tidal Atlantic lake system. Significant differences were recorded in mean δ13C, δ15N and C:N values from eels collected from fresh, brackish and marine-dominated basins. A discriminant analysis using these predictor variables correctly classified ca. 85% of eels to salinity zone, allowing eels to be classified as freshwater (FW), brackish (BW) or marine (MW) residents. The results of the discriminant analysis also suggested that a significant proportion of eels moved between habitats (especially between FW and BW). Comparisons of several key population parameters showed significant variation between eels resident in different salinity zones. Mean condition and estimated age was significantly lower in MW eels, whilst observed length at age (a correlate of growth) was significantly higher in MW eels, intermediate in BW and lowest in FW eels. This study has demonstrated that the ecology of eels found along a short salinity gradient can be extremely plastic and that stable isotope analysis has considerable utility in demonstrating intra-population variation in diadromous fishes.

A taphonomic analysis of micromammal remains from the Late Natufian deposits of el-Wad Terrace, Mount Carmel, Israel, was conducted in order to test the long-standing premise of owl deposition as the primary accumulating agent. The inferred taphonomic sequence was modeled within an actualistic (recent) comparative framework incorporating a locally derived barn owl pellet collection and an off-site control assemblage of micromammal remains from the cliff overhanging the terrace. The sequence was reconstructed based on multiple types of recorded taphonomic data, comprising skeletal modifications (breakage, digestion, weathering, gnawing, and charring) and age structure. Evidence for post-depositional processes including fluvial transport, trampling, and weathering was isolated and consequently the typical owl imprints were traced through the two actualistic and the archaeological assemblages. Based on the extent of breakage and patterning in skeletal element frequencies it was also possible to scale the preservation potential of primary data in el-Wad Terrace as a discrete site type, intermediate between true cave and openair depositional environments. Verifying the role of owls as principal agents of accumulation of the el-Wad Terrace micromammal remains enabled the detection of two minor superimposed cultural patterns: consumption of mole rats (Spalax sp.) by the Natufians and commensalism of mice (Mus spp.).

Aim Negative relationships between body mass and substitution rates have previously been reported. However, most of these studies have involved contrasted taxa that, due to their highly divergent phylogenetic histories, also differ in many additional characteristics other than mass. In particular, there has been little examination of the potentially confounding effects of climate or population size. Here we test for differences in rates of microevolution among bird species that, although differing in mass, are nonetheless very closely related phylogenetic pairs. We additionally tested for latitudinal/elevational and population size effects across these contrasts.

In the early 1960s, it was established that the stochastic initial value problem for weakly coupled wave systems has a natural asymptotic closure induced by the dispersive properties of the waves and the large separation of linear and nonlinear time scales. One is thereby led to kinetic equations for the redistribution of spectral densities via three-and four-wave resonances together with a nonlinear renormalization of the frequency. The kinetic equations have equilibrium solutions which are much richer than the familiar thermodynamic, Fermi-Dirac or Bose-Einstein spectra and admit in addition finite flux (Kolmogorov-Zakharov) solutions which describe the transfer of conserved densities (e.g. energy) between sources and sinks. There is much one can learn from the kinetic equations about the behavior of particular systems of interest including insights in connection with the phenomenon of intermittency. What we would like to convince you is that what we call weak or wave turbulence is every bit as rich as the macho turbulence of 3D hydrodynamics at high Reynolds numbers and, moreover, is analytically more tractable. It is an excellent paradigm for the study of many-body Hamiltonian systems which are driven far from equilibrium by the presence of external forcing and damping. In almost all cases, it contains within its solutions behavior which invalidates the premises on which the theory is based in some spectral range. We give some new results concerning the dynamic breakdown of the weak turbulence description and discuss the fully nonlinear and intermittent behavior which follows. These results may also be important for proving or disproving the global existence of solutions for the underlying partial differential equations. Wave turbulence is a subject to which many have made important contributions. But no contributions have been more fundamental than those of Volodja Zakharov whose 60th birthday we celebrate at this meeting. He was the first to appreciate that the kinetic equations admit a far richer class of solutions than the fluxless thermodynamic solutions of equilibrium systems and to realize the central roles that finite flux solutions play in non-equilibrium systems. It is appropriate, therefore, that we call these Kolmogorov-Zakharov (KZ) spectra. : S 0 1 6 7 -2 7 8 9 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 1 9 2 -0 1. The set up: the equation for the Fourier amplitudes. 2. Moments, cumulants.

In this paper we review recent developments in the statistical theory of weakly nonlinear dispersive waves, the subject known as Wave Turbulence (WT). We revise WT theory using a generalisation of the random phase approximation (RPA). This generalisation takes into account that not only the phases but also the amplitudes of the wave Fourier modes are random quantities and it is called the "Random Phase and Amplitude" approach. This approach allows to systematically derive the kinetic equation for the energy spectrum from the the Peierls-Brout-Prigogine (PBP) equation for the multi-mode probability density function (PDF). The PBP equation was originally derived for the three-wave systems and in the present paper we derive a similar equation for the four-wave case. Equation for the multi-mode PDF will be used to validate the statistical assumptions Yeontaek Choi et al. 2 about the phase and the amplitude randomness used for WT closures. Further, the multimode PDF contains a detailed statistical information, beyond spectra, and it finally allows to study non-Gaussianity and intermittency in WT, as it will be described in the present paper. In particular, we will show that intermittency of stochastic nonlinear waves is related to a flux of probability in the space of wave amplitudes.

he collapse of the Bronze Age Harappan, one of the earliest urban civilizations, remains an enigma. Urbanism flourished in the western region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain for approximately 600 y, but since approximately 3,900 y ago, the total settled area and settlement sizes declined, many sites were abandoned, and a significant shift in site numbers and density towards the east is recorded. We report morphologic and chronologic evidence indicating that fluvial landscapes in Harappan territory became remarkably stable during the late Holocene as aridification intensified in the region after approximately 5,000 BP. Upstream on the alluvial plain, the large Himalayan rivers in Punjab stopped incising, while down- stream, sedimentation slowed on the distinctive mega-fluvial ridge, which the Indus built in Sindh. This fluvial quiescence suggests a gradual decrease in flood intensity that probably stimulated intensive agriculture initially and encouraged urbanization around 4,500 BP. However, further decline in monsoon precipitation led to conditions adverse to both inundation- and rain-based farming. Contrary to earlier assumptions that a large glacier-fed Himalayan river, identi- fied by some with the mythical Sarasvati, watered the Harappan heartland on the interfluve between the Indus and Ganges basins, we show that only monsoonal-fed rivers were active there during the Holocene. As the monsoon weakened, monsoonal rivers gradually dried or became seasonal, affecting habitability along their courses. Hydroclimatic stress increased the vulnerability of agricultural production supporting Harappan urbanism, leading to settlement downsizing, diversification of crops, and a drastic increase in settlements in the moister monsoon regions of the upper Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.

This research examines the political and regulatory landscapes of Bangladesh’s shrimp industry and their effect on market performance from theoretical and contextual frameworks.  Conventional economic perspectives advocate global trade as a means to create market competition, which leads to capitalist development of business, and finally begets free market access ultimately leading to economic development in developing countries. On the contrary, statists advocate government’s role in promoting industrial development and economic performance as a way to move ahead.  In both cases, success depends on institutional capabilities, which are socially-politically embedded, to regulate market behaviours.  Interestingly though, neither theoretical framework provides adequate structural analysis for least developing countries (LDCs) on how to tackle industrial policies under the growing market pressure stemming from north-south and south-south competition.  Particularly, this brings conflicting policy proposals in international economic discourse. 

Market liberalization in LDCs has opened up global markets for their primary commodities, mainly agro-export-commodities like cotton, tea, and shrimp in which they have competitive advantages.  However, LDCs’ ability to maximize their trading space in a liberalized market world are severely constrained by multi-complexities of global, regionalm, and local regulatory frameworks, both formal and informal, like trade laws to non-trade barriers, to cultural stigmas.  Therefore, how much competitiveness LDCs really possess in the global market is an issue for industrialization and future economic development.  This leads to the question of this research: To what extent can primary sector producers in least developing countries move up the global commodity chain? 

To answer this question, this research focuses on redistribution practices and effects of global to local trade standards and regulations.  The Bangladesh shrimp sector is used as a representative case study.  Shrimp exports are the nation’s second largest industrial sector after garments and the industry has already been subjected to harsh world trade regulations.  The shrimp industry faces significant buyer-driven regulations from its primary markets: US (34%), EU (51%), and Japan (15%).  Moreover, the largest portion of the shrimp chain is characterized by low-skilled labour, disorganization, and informal structures.  As such, adjustment costs of changing regulations resulting from the buyer-driven international shrimp market manifest in market diversions, price erosion, and long-term momentum loss for many actors in the value chain.

This thesis takes a multidisciplinary approach to analyze the moving-up process or ‘internalization’ process of buyer driven market competition within the existing institutions that influence the domestic value chain, both formal and informal.  To analyze the changing influence of globalization on Bangladesh’s shrimp trading environment, the study considers the fact that economic redistribution practices are strongly influenced by the intensive ‘interlocking’ of formal and informal socio-political and cultural settings within which countries’ industrial organizations developed overtime.  Hence the rules and regulations stemming from the global arena are often implemented via local policies and regulations, which continuously influence both vertical and horizontal power dynamics between buyers and sellers at all levels affecting economic outcomes.  The broader regulatory framework of export supply chains is influenced by international market forces, which trickle down to the local level to export commodity producers.  In the process of trickling down, the pre-existing social production system is shifting from capitalist accumulation systems into a unique market liberalization system.